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Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion
Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan (Eds.)
Encyclopedia of Psychology
and Religion
With15Figuresand2Tables Editors-in-Chief:
DavidA.Leeming,Ph.D.
Blanton-PealeInstitute
3West29thStreet
NewYork,NY10001
USA
KathrynMadden,Ph.D.
NationalInstituteforthePsychotherapies
250West57thStreet,Suite501
NewYork,NY10019
USA
StantonMarlan,Ph.D.
PittsburghCenterforPsychotherapyandPsychoanalysis
4527WinthropStreet
Pittsburgh,PA15213-3722
USA
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ISBN:978-0-387-71801-9
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ßSpringerScience+BusinessMediaLLC2010(USA)
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(SpringerScience+BusinessMedia,LLC,233SpringStreet,NewYork,NY10013,USA),exceptforbriefexcerptsinconnectionwithreviews
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Printedonacid-freepaper SPIN:115287082109—543210 Preface
Mr.KennethGinigersometimeagosuggestedtoDr.HollyJohnson,thenPresidentofBlanton-PealeInstitute,NewYork,
NY,thatBlanton-Pealecompileanencyclopediaofpsychologyandreligion,acomprehensivereferenceworkconsisting
of articles contributed by scholars of importance in the fields of religion, psychology, psychology and religion, and
psychologyofreligion.Dr.Johnsonalsosawtheneedforsuchaninformationsourceandbeganplanningworkonthe
projectwiththeassistanceofBlanton-Pealecolleagues,Dr.WalterOdajnykandDr.DavidA.Leeming.Longworking
together with Blanton-Peale on behalf of Journal of Religion and Health, Springer Science+Business Media became
publisher, with Dr.Leeming, Dr. Kathryn Madden, and Dr. Stanton Marlan named as Editors-in-Chief. Dr. Leeming
becameManagingEditoroftheproject.Hehastaughtcoursesinmyth,religion,andliteratureformanyyearsandhas
publishedseveralbooksonthesesubjects,includingtheOxfordCompaniontoWorldMythology,anduntilrecentlywas
Editor-in-Chiefoftheaward-winningJournalofReligionandHealthandDeanofBlanton-Peale’sGraduateInstitute.He
iscurrentlyPresidentofBlanton-PealeInstitute.Dr.MaddenservedasDeanandlaterPresidentofBlanton-Peale,was
AssociateEditorandlaterExecutiveEditoroftheJournalofReligionandHealth,andhasrecentlypublishedDarkLight
of the Soul (Lindisfarme Books). She teaches and lectures regularly and is in private practice. She received her M.A.,
M.Phil., and Ph.D. degrees in Psychology and Religion from Union Theological Seminary inNew York City. Shehas
publishedmanyarticlesinherfieldandisEditorofQuadrant.Dr.Marlanisaclinicalpsychologistinprivatepractice.
He is a training and supervising analyst for the Inter-Regional Society of Jungian Analysts and is President of the
PittsburghSocietyofJungianAnalysts.HeisalsoAdjunctClinicalProfessorofPsychologyatDuquesneUniversityand
holdsdiplomatesinbothClinicalPsychologyandPsychoanalysisfromtheAmericanBoardofProfessionalPsychology.
HehasbeenEditoroftheJournalofJungianTheoryandPracticeandistheauthorofnumerousarticlesandbooksinthe
fieldofJungian psychology.Parentageofthe Encyclopedia ofPsychologyandReligioncomes naturally to theBlanton-
PealeInstitute.Foundedin1937byDr.NormanVincentPealeandpsychologistSmileyBlanton,theInstituteisamental
healthclinicandpsychologicaltraininginstitutededicatedtotheconstructiveintegrationofreligionandpsychology.
TheEncyclopediaofPsychologyandReligionprovidesacrucialnewresourceforthecollaborationandmutualillumina-
tionofthesetwofields.
Entriesaredrawnfromawidevarietyofreligioustraditions,notonlymodernworldreligions,suchasChristianity,
Judaism,Islam,Buddhism,andHinduism,butalso,forexample,AfricanAnimism,pre-ChristianCelticandGermanic
traditions,Egyptian,Greek,Gnostic,andNativeNorthAmericanandMesoamericanreligiousmovements.Approaches
to the subjects demonstrate a broad range of methodologies. Each entry is intended to create a tension of meaning
betweentraditionalreligioustermsandpsychologicalinterpretations.Thegoalisnottoimposethecorrectordefinitive
meaning, but to explore new and latent deposits of meaning that bear implications for human self-understanding,
cross-culturalinterpretation,andtherapeuticpossibilities.
Occasionally,morethanonearticleonagivensubjectisincludedtopresentdifferentpointsofview.Extensivecross-
referencingallowsthereadertoenhanceunderstandingofparticularsubjectsthroughdirectaccesstorelatedtopics.The
EncyclopediaofPsychologyandReligionwillserveasavaluableandaccessiblereferenceworkinbothelectronicandprint
versionsforacademiclibrariesandtheirpatronsandwillbeofparticularusetothegrowingcommunityofresearchers,
academics, teachers, clergy, therapists, counselors, and other professionals who are involved in the developing
reintegrationofthefieldsofreligionandpsychology. Acknowledgment
TheEditorsandBlanton-PealeInstitutethankthemembersofSpringerScience+BusinessMediastaffinbothGermany
andtheUnitedStatesfortheirsupportonthisproject.WeareparticularlygratefultoCarolBischoff,ThomasMager,
SusanneFriedrichsen,HeikeRichini,andChristineHausmannfortheirconsistenthelpandsupport.
DavidA.Leeming,KathrynMadden,andStantonMarlan Introduction
The world’s great religions have always served as the repository of the psychological truths and values of mankind.
Religionsaddressthefundamentalquestionsofhumanexistence:thepurposeandmeaningoflife;ourrelationshipwith
God;thenatureofthesoul;theexistenceofevil,suffering,anddeath;ethicalbehaviorandconscience;oursearchfor
happiness,redemption,andsalvation.Inpreviouscenturiestheologiansandreligiousphilosopherswerenotinclinedto
differentiatebetweenmattersof‘‘soul’’or‘‘psyche.’’FiguressuchasSt.Paul,St.Augustine,MartinLuther,Pascal,and
Kierkegaardwerepeopleoffaithwhoalsograppledwiththemysteriesofhumaninteriority,will,andmotivation.
Inthecourseofaddressingtheseissues,everyreligionhasdevelopedadefinitionofhumannatureandexaminedour
fundamentalmotivations,drives,anddesires.Religionshavebeencruciblesforthetime-testedpsychologicalprinciples
thatassureasenseofidentity,community,andmeaningfullife.Allreligions,forexample,havediscoveredthatnegative
psychologicalstates, suchas pride,anger,hatred,lust,envy,ignorance,selfishness, andegotism,lead topersonaland
socialconflict,injustice,andpain.Ontheotherhand,positivementalandemotionalattitudes,suchaslove,altruism,
forgiveness,compassion,generosity,humility,equanimity,andwisdom,leadtoasenseofpersonalwell-beingandsocial
harmony.Fromapsychologicalperspective,religionsareall-encompassingtherapeuticsystemsthatdealwithmajorlife
events,transitions,andcrisesandrespondinahealing,oftenlife-savingwaytothetravailsofthesufferingsoulandthe
impoverishedspirit.
With the emergence and then dominance of scientific rationalism, however, the fields of religion and psychology
diverged and entered into a relation of mutual suspicion. Beginning with the Enlightenment and its materialistic,
secular,andrationalisticweltanschauung,thepreviouslygenerallyacceptedreligiousandspiritualdelineationofhuman
naturewasseriouslychallenged.Intime,asplitoccurredbetweenstudiesofhumannaturebasedonseculardefinitions
andtheage-oldreligiousknowledgeofthehumansoulandspirit.Thetwofieldsthatshouldhavebeenalliedandin
creativedialogueinsteadbecameestrangedfromeachother,andoftenignoredorrejectedtheknowledgethateachcould
havecontributedtotheenterpriseofunderstandinghumannature.Purelysecularnotionsofhumannatureemerged:
humanbeingswereseenasrationalanimals;apersonwasbornatabularasa,neithergoodnorevil,withparentingand
education forming the personality; human beings were a composite of their economic and social relations; human
beings were initially motivated by instinctive, irrational, and unrealistic drives and desires; all human behavior,
emotions,andmotivationsandthosemostsublimeculturalcreations,religiousbeliefsandexperiences,weretheresult
of complexorganic, neurological, and biochemical interactions. The tradition inspired by Sigmund Freud tended to
viewreligionasanillusion,aculturalvestigeofimmaturityandprojection.Consequently,thoseinthereligiouscamp
cametoviewpsychologyasareductionistenterprisethatdeniedthesacredandtranscendentaspectsofreality.
Whilesomecontinuetosubscribetosuchstereotypes,amoresophisticatedunderstandingofreligion–particularly
asadvancedbythefieldofdepthpsychology–hasdonemuchtoovercomethem.Thesecularparadigmthathasruled
thedomainofpsychologyforthepastcenturieswaschallengedearlyonbypioneerssuchasWilliamJames,C.G.Jung,
RobertoAssagioli,ViktorFrankl,ErikErikson,andthehumanisticpsychologistsGordonAllport,ErichFromm,and
AbrahamMaslow.Duringthe1970s,thesethinkerswerejoinedbythetranspersonalpsychologists,whohavesoughta
synthesisbetweensecularpsychologyandthegreatspiritualtraditions.Whiletheyhaveacceptedthestagesofpersonal
development described by various exponents of secular psychology, they have added the stages of transpersonal
developmentevidencedintheworld’scontemplativeandmeditativetraditions.Becauseoftheculturalshiftrepresented
by the above and the persistence of religious beliefs in the vast majority of populations worldwide, contemporary
psychologistsarebeginningtorecognizethatapurelysecularapproachtothestudyandtreatmentofhumanbeingsis
inadequate.Asciencededicatedtotheexplorationofthebasiccharacteristicsandstrivingsofhumanbeingsandtothe
classificationofthelawsofhumanbehaviorneedstobeinclusiveandnotexclusiveofthereligiousdimension.
The need to address religious and spiritual problems is now deemed not only legitimate, but also clinically and
ethically imperative. The 1994 edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders published by the
AmericanPsychiatricAssociation,forexample,containsanewclassification,‘‘ReligiousorSpiritualProblems.’’
ThisEncyclopediaofPsychologyandReligiongrowsoutofthedevelopingawarenessoftheneedtoreintegratethe
sciencesofthemindwiththescienceofthespirit. Bybringing together thedisciplines ofpsychology andreligion, it viii Introduction
unitesthetwoareasofstudyconcernedwiththebehaviorandmotivationsofhumanbeingsandprovidesacrucialnew
resourceforthecollaborationandmutualilluminationofthesetwofields.Forthoseinthestudyofreligion,itoffers
new toolsforunderstandingtheimages,structures,symbols, andrhythmsthatconstitute thevocabularyofreligious
experience. For those in the field of psychology it reveals deep patterns of meaning and practice that inform human
cultureandthepersonalidentityofmillions.
ThisEncyclopediaofPsychologyandReligionillustrates,eventotheskeptical,thevitalimportanceofreligioninour
worldandtheseriousdepthsofitssymbolicuniverse.Forthosealreadyimmersedinreligiousstudies,itdemonstrates
layersofmeaningthatareenriched–notreduced–bythetoolsofpsychologicalinvestigation.
Wetrustthisencyclopediaprovidescomprehensivetimelyaccessibleinformationfromamulti-facetedperspective
thatreflectstheintersectionandthegrowingsynthesisofpsychologyandreligion.
DavidA.Leeming,KathrynMadden,andStantonMarlan Editors-in-Chief
DavidA.Leeming
Blanton-PealeInstitute
3West29thStreet
NewYork,NY10001
USA
KathrynMadden
NationalInstituteforthePsychotherapies
250West57thStreet,Suite501
NewYork,NY10019
USA
StantonMarlan
PittsburghCenterforPsychotherapyandPsychoanalysis
4527WinthropStreet
Pittsburgh,PA15213-3722
USA
Managing Editor
DavidA.Leeming
Blanton-PealeInstitute
3West29thStreet
NewYork,NY10001
USA
Associate Managing Editor
FeliceNoelleRodriguez
Blanton-PealeInstitute
3West29thStreet
NewYork,NY10001
USA
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